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Good IsearchUsearchE: In theology, Christology is the study
of Jesus' nature, i.e., whether Christ had both a human
and divine nature,
whether he had one sentient will alone or one human will and
one divine will, whether he was theoretically capable
of sin
like humanity or perfectly righteous like the other persons
in the trinity, whether he shared in the Father's omniscience
or suffered from human afflictions like doubt or ignorance,
whether he existed or not before his biological birth,
whether
he was equal in authority and power to the other persons in
the trinity, and whether he actually had a physical body
(the
orthodox view) or was composed entirely of spirit (the Arian
view).
In literary studies, the
term christological has been commandeered to refer
to (1) an object, person, or figure that represents Christ
allegorically
or symbolically, or (2) any similar object, person, or figure
with qualities generally reminiscent of Christ. Examples
of
christological figures include the Old Man in Hemingway's The
Old Man and the Sea, who after his struggle with the
fish ends up bleeding from his palms and lying on the floor
in a
cruciform pattern; the lion Aslan in C. S. Lewis's The
Chronicles of Narnia, who allows himself like the lion
of the tribe of Judah to be slain in order to redeem a traitorous
child;
and the unicorn in medieval bestiaries, which would lie down
and place its phallic,
ivory-horned meekly in a maiden's lap so that hunters might
kill it--which medieval monks interpreted as an allegory of
Christ allowing himself to enter the womb of the virgin Mary
so that he might later be sacrificed. Zora Neale Hurston creates
a christ-figure in Delia Jones, who in the short story "Sweat"
suffers to support her ungrateful husband and "crawled
over the earth in Gethsemane and up the rocks of Calvary many,
many times . . ." and so on.
CHRONICLE:
A history or a record of events. It refers to any systematic
account or narration of events that makes minimal attempt to
interpret, question, or analyze that history. Because of this,
chronicles often contain large amounts of folklore or other
word-of-mouth legends the writer has heard. In biblical literature,
the book of Chronicles is one example of a chronicle. Medieval
chronicles include Joinville's account of the Crusades and Geoffrey
of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, a source
for much Arthurian legend. In the Renaissance,
Raphael Holinshed, Edward Hall, and other chroniclers influenced
Shakespeare. Chronicles were popular in England after the British
defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588. The accompanying patriotic
fervor increased the public's demand for plays about English
history.
CHRONOLOGY
(Greek: "logic of time"): The order in which events
happen, especially when emphasizing a cause-effect relationship
in history or in a narrative.
CHTHONIC:
Related to the dead, the grave, the underworld, or the fertility
of the earth. In Greek mythology, the Greeks venerated three
categories of spirits: (1) the Olympian gods,
who were worshipped in public ceremonies--often outdoors on
the east side of large columned temples in the agora, (2) ancestral
heroes like Theseus and Hercules, who were often worshipped
only in local shrines or at specific burial mounds, (3) chthonic
spirits, which included (a) earth-gods and
death-gods like Hades, Hecate, and Persephone; (b) lesser-known
(and often nameless) spirits of the departed; (c) dark
and bloody spirits of vengeance like the Furies and Nemesis,
and (d) (especially in Minoan tradition) serpents,
which were revered as intermediaries between the surface world
of the living and the subterranean realm of the dead. This
is why snakes were so prominent in the healing cults of Aesclepius.
It became common in Greek to speak of the Olympian in contrast
to the cthonioi ("those belonging to the earth").
See Burkert 199-203 for detailed discussion.
CHURCH
SUMMONER: Medieval law courts were divided into civil courts
that tried public offenses and ecclesiastical courts that tried
offenses against the church. Summoners were minor church officials
whose duties included summoning offenders to appear before the
church and receive sentence. By the fourteenth century, the
job became synonymous with extortion and corruption because
many summoners would take bribes from the individuals summoned
to court. Chaucer satirized a summoner in The Canterbury
Tales.
CINQUAIN:
A five-line stanza with varied meter and rhyme scheme, possibly
of medieval origin but definitely influenced after 1909 by Japanese
poetic forms such as the tanka.
Most modern cinquains are now based on the form standardized
by an American poet, Adelaide Crapsey (1878-1918), in which
each unrhymed line has a fixed number of syllables--respectively
two, four, six, eight, and two syllables in each line--for a
rigid total of 22 syllables. Here is probably the most famous
example of a cinquain from Crapsey's The Complete Poems;
TRIAD
These be
Three silent things:
The falling snow... the hour
Before the dawn... the mouth of one
Just dead.
Perhaps under the influence
of diamante
poems, many modern elementary school teachers have begun adding
an additional set of conventions to the cinquain in which each
line has a specific structural requirement:
Line 1 - Consists
of the two-syllable title or subject for the poem
Line 2 - Consists of two adjectives totaling four syllables
describing the subject or title
Line 3 - Consists of three verbs totaling six syllables describing
the subject's actions
Line 4 - Consists of four words totaling eight syllables giving
the writer's opinion of the subject.
Line 5 - Consists of one two-syllable word, often a synonym
for the subject.
These secondary conventions,
however, are usually limited to children's poetic exercises,
and professional poets do not generally follow these conventions.
CIRCULAR
STRUCTURE: A type of artistic
structure in which a sense of completeness or closure does not
originate in coming to a "conclusion" that breaks
with the earlier story; instead, the sense of closure originates
in the way the end of a piece returns to subject-matter, wording,
or phrasing found at the beginning of the narrative, play, or
poem. An example of circular structure might be "The Secret
Life of Walter Mitty," which ends with an ellipsis identical
to the opening sequence, indicating that the middle-aged protagonist
is engaging in yet another escapist fantasy. Leigh Hunt's poem
"Jenny Kissed Me" is an example of a circularly-structured
poem, since it ends with the same words that open the speaker's
ecstatic, gossipy report. Langdon Smith's poem "Evolution"
is circular in its concluding repetition of the opening phrase,
"When you were a tadpole, and I was a fish," but it
is also thematically circular, in that it implies the cycle
of reincarnated love will continue again and again in spite
of death. In many ways, the smaller tales within a larger frame
narrative act as part of a circular structure, because
each small tale begins by breaking the reader away from the
larger, encompassing narrative and concludes by returning the
reader to that larger frame-narrative.
CITY DIONYSIA: See
discussion under dionysia.
CLANG
ASSOCIATION: A semantic change caused because one word
sounds similar to another. For instance, the word fruition
in Middle English meant "enjoyment." In Modern English,
its meaning has changed to "completion" because it
sounds like the word fruit--hence the idea of ripeness,
of growing to full size, as Algeo notes (314).
CLASSICAL:
The term in Western culture is usually used in reference to
the art, architecture, drama, philosophy, literature, and history
surrounding the Greeks and Romans between 1000 BCE and 410 BCE.
Works created during the Greco-Roman period are often called
classics. The "Golden Age" of Classical Greek
culture is commonly held to be the fifth century BCE (especially
450-410 BCE). The term can be applied more generally to any
ancient and revered writing or artwork from a specific culture;
thus we refer to "Classical
Chinese," "Classical Hebrew," and "Classical
Arabic" works. For extended discussion, click
here. To download a PDF handout placing the periods of literary
history in order, click
here.
CLASSICAL HAIKU:
Another term for the hokku, the predecessor of the modern
haiku. See hokku
and haiku.
CLASSICS:
See discussion under classical,
above.
CLAUSE
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Kip Wheeler 1998-2012. Permission is granted for non-profit,
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